Refugees

As the monarchy’s economic problems deepened, refugees became one of the most imperilled social groups. In 1916, the Soča Valley saw five offensives, the Sixth Battle marking a watershed. Some 6,000 inhabitants of Gorizia and its surroundings became refugees. After the town’s conquest, the Italian authorities took about 500 of them to the interior of the country. The new refugee wave was an additional burden for the Austrian food provision. The shortage was felt less severely by refugees in Italy, since Italy did not have major difficulties in terms of food provision. A portion of refugees from the Gorizia area found temporary homes in Austrian refugee camps, the other part was dispersed over the Austrian hinterland. Access to earnings and food was limited in refugee camps, living conditions were poor. Those who stayed in the hinterland were often met with aversion by their neighbourhood. In 1916, Zavod za pospeševanje obrti (Office for Promotion of Trade) started its operation in the Kranjska region that along with Posredovalnica za goriške begunce (Agency for the Goriška Region Refugees) assisted the local refugees of both genders in finding work.

Criminality

As the war continued and shortage was increasing, women’s rebelliousness was growing. Many of them did not see the enemy in members of other nations, but rather in governmental authorities. Women felt they were victims of violence inflicted by their own country. In their concern for survival, some of them resorted to trickery to obtain state support illegally. They forged travel permits or identification documents in order to bypass restrictions of movement by the military. By forging food stamps, they secured the much needed food for their starving children. The fastest way to obtain food was to steal it occasionally, which was done by individuals or gangs of thieves. Women farmers rebelled to requisitions by hiding their crops, while market traders increased the prices of their rare foodstuffs on several occasions. Tumults caused by long queues in front of bakeries and stores turned, particularly in larger cities (e.g. Trieste), into broader demonstrations by dissatisfied and enraged masses.

Educated Women’s Kitchens

In the households of educated middle- or high-class women, as a rule, five meals were served. Next to three main meals—breakfast, lunch, and dinner— they also had a morning and an afternoon snack. The richest among them employed cooks, who bought food in town markets or from farmers. Food was kept cold in pantries and cellars. The kitchen had a stone or iron stove with an oven, a table, cupboards, and shelves. Special attention was paid to setting the table, and serving in dining rooms or tea rooms. Prior to the outbreak of war, their food was more diverse than the food eaten by women farmers or workers. The main meals included soups, meat dishes, salads, and side dishes. Cakes and desserts took up a special place. Wartime food shortage impoverished their diet that was getting increasingly frugal.

City: Nutrition of the Civil Population

In war time, food was scarce especially in the Austrian part of Austria-Hungary. The agricultural production was dramatically reduced by the war devastation of Galicia, the central grain-producing area, and by the fact that the male work force had left for the front. In 1915, nearly a year after the beginning of the war, first signs of shortage were visible. Despite the new legislature, the administrative apparatus did not manage to improve the supply. The food production did not meet the demands of the army and the civil population.

The cities suffered the greatest shortage, the black market and smuggling were booming. The poorest urban population, in particular, frequently visited the nearby or remote countryside (manly in Hungary). They bought predominately flour, potatoes and lard from the farmers.

Conditions in the Countryside

Shortage and soaring prices after the outbreak of war affected the urban population the most. In the countryside, more food was available, therefore, inhabitants of larger cities often frequented local farms to obtain basic supplies. The Austrian authorities were aware of the importance of food self-supply in war time. They enthused school children to work on the fields, they also involved prisoners of war, refugees of both genders. In the period of the most intensive farm work, enlisted soldiers were allowed to return to their homes. Women were encouraged to take over farms and take up farm work.

Military Food

Sustenance is a fundamental human need, it is of vital importance that this need is met, since hungry soldiers are disinclined to fight. The high commands of warring countries were well aware of that; prior to the outset of the conflicts, the food supply systems for soldiers had been planned with care but also tested in the manoeuvres. However, in war time, these systems did not prove successful everywhere. Field kitchens on wagons and crates that each Austro-Hungarian troop was allocated moved sluggishly behind the penetrating units in the difficult terrain. In the fortified battlefields, the food supply was hindered by enemy’s artillery that focused particularly on supply paths between the front line and the hinterland from where food and drink was being carried on foot or by cattle. Despite the concern for regular food supply of the front line, a portion of soldiers suffered hunger and thirst. Particularly from 1916 onwards, the supply of the Austro-Hungarian army deteriorated drastically due to foodstuff shortage and insufficient food production.